Qumran Timeline 
Incorporating
Egyptian, Israelite, Assyrian, Babylonian, 
Hittite, Persian, and Roman 
Reference Timelines

Sources and Notes

NOTICE: This Timeline is undergoing some significant revisions.

• I've extended the range backwards to include current scientific estimates for some very ancient milestones in human and hominid pre-history. These are not dates in the conventional sense, and I have designated these BP (before present) to distinguish them from the more recent, historical events; which should, in principle, be dateable. To get an even broader perspective on the relative newness of human culture, consider that the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old; that evidence for life on Earth goes back about 3.2 billion years; but that life on dry land goes back only about 500 million years (half a billion); and that the earliest mammals make only a dim impression on the fossil record until about 40 million years ago. Almost everything of interest about human culture has happened in the most recent one-quarter of one-tenth of one percent of the age of mammals. On that time scale all the historical dates in this timeline are late breaking news.
• The conventional Egyptian timelines that I've been consulting contain a range of dates for most of the dynastic periods. In this timeline, I am using the low (most recent) conventional dates I can find. Usually, these are the dates listed in David M. Rohl's book, Pharaohs and Kings, which he attributes to Kenneth Kitchen's Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (for Dynasties 21 to 26), Kitchen's low chronology in "The Basics of Egyptian Chronology in Relation to the Bronze Age," in High, Middle, or Low, P. Astrom, ed. (Gothenburg, 1987) (for Dynasties 11 to 20), and John Baines and Jaromir Malek's Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 1980) (for Dynasties 1 to 10). I haven't been smart enough to spot the 60 year discrepancy that Rohl says exists near the start of the 11th Dynasty, so I am making no attempt to adjust for it. The process of resetting all the dates here to match Rohl's dates is currently in progress. I do not plan to take the additional step of adjusting the conventional Third Intermediate period dates as Rohl argues in his book, but I do plan to examine the consequences of making his suggested adjustment.
• A few dates which seem to be very firmly established will be marked with a light red background, as follows:

LIGHT RED BACKGROUND

• As time permits, I will be adding the non-conventional Egyptian dates discussed by David M. Rohl in his book (see below). To set these off from the accepted dates, they will be inclosed in a violet background, like this:

VIOLET BACKGROUND

• Any number of on-line sources have been found containing images of a few pharaohs. I am currently making an extensive search for images that include either the image of each pharaoh or his hieroglyphic name, or both. As time permits, I will add these to the list of pharaohs in each dynasty. The plan is to let each image here mark the link to the page where the original of that image can be viewed. Most of the images are not stored at this site, so IF an image does not appear on this page, then the original site is either not responding or has moved. When an image does appear, just click on the image to go to the site. This is fairly time consuming, so this process will take some time to complete. See Dynasties 0 and 1 below for examples of how the work is progressing.

Chronological Uncertainties

A good timeline provides, necessarily, information about the timing of a limited number of points in time (coronation of a king, eclipse of the sun, etc.) and the relative timing and duration of certain extended events (length of a kingly reign, duration of a war, etc.). The duration data is usually more securely known than the date because it if often given in the primary documents.

Placing the events in order requires some luck and attention to a lot of detail, but that gives the next most secure piece of information, the relative dates. Relative dates are very useful because if the data include non-overlapping reigns, for example, then their durations can be added to calculate longer time spans. If their durations are not known, longer spans can still be estimated using either an average reign length or an average generation length. Both produce somewhat uncertain numbers, and estimates based on either are necessarily uncertain as well. Still in a few reigns or generations, one would not expect to be off by more than a decade or so and that is often good enough to make the estimated date worth having. But it is not the sort of date one can use in making close calls that require accuracy of a year or so instead of a decade or so.

Events with absolute dates are the most precious items in a chronologists arsenal of logical weapons. They are rare and valuable treasures. Fortunately, it is thought, not a lot of absolute dates will be required if the relative dating is done carefully and accurately.

The last of the valuable weapons in a chronologists tool kit chronologists are synchronisms. These are also rare events (or should I say the evidence for such events is rare) which bring the timelines of different regions into direct contact with each other. In the past these seemed rare even in the face of the logic which suggested that the various empires were in more or less constant contact. As absolute and relative dates have been refined it looks as though there will be more evidence of synchronisms welling up from the data. Furthermore, some synchronisms have been, and others probably still are, hidden in the linguistic differences between the various regions. These might also be discovered with additional effort.

Interestingly, refinements in the chronologies improves the ability of chronologists to identify new synchronisms and that in turn allows them to refine their and our understanding of how different languages are used to express the names of known places and individuals. This means that linguistics (and all its sub-specialties that apply to the study of written language) can be used, in some sense, to verify or refute the chronologies that are being proposed. This is becoming quite an industry. More than ever before, the effective archaeologist or chronologist needs to be conversant in a dozen or more archaic languages in order to stay in the hunt.

Reigns of individual pharaohs and kings, or entire dynasties may overlap, but if the historical record that comes down to us doesn't provide that information then the chronologist is stuck having to guess or argue in favor of an overlap. Otherwise, the sum of his reign lengths is going to add up to more years than a properly constructed chronology can hold. Alternatively, in the absence of a convincing argument demonstrating the overlap, the chronology will overestimate the duration of certain periods. This can artificially extend the apparent duration of events in one region relative to another. This coupled with linguistic difficulties can effectively obscure synchronisms that would, if recognized, have important historical implications. Serious attempts to define where the overlaps occur are not guaranteed success. A proposed chronology that seems to offer the best resolution to the various lines of conflicting information may be demonstrably wrong for some other reason which is not yet included in the available evidence.

Using synchronisms between contemporary events, and a carefully researched, and a fully documented and optimally accurate set of supporting dates, the professional chronologists attempt to create consistent and historically meaningful chronologies. There is little certainty in the construction and no assurance that tomorrow's evidence will not significantly upset it. Thus, it is by increments, using logic and guesswork, that the chronologies viewed here and elsewhere on the web must be understood. They are transitory at their best and misleadingly wrong at their worst.

To begin, there must be some evidence to reasonably pin down at least a few of the important dates. Between those most secure dates it is always necessary to "estimate" the intervening dates using one or more methods, each with its own level of inherent uncertainty. Ideally, this strategy ensures that the estimated dates are pinned down between the more secure dates and that their relative dates are retained within the intervening interval. It does not ensure total accuracy. It would be more useful if instead of dates, we used date ranges, but even estimating the error of a particular date is impossible. If the scientific errors could be calculated, they would probably be so wide that the dates would be meaningless.

To add to these complications, history comes to us in the form of parallel isolated chronologies for separate geographical areas. Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt are sometimes on the same timeline and sometimes on separate timelines. It is not always easy to tell which is which. Obviously, chronologies from Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Macedonia and Hatti are built up from records recovered from the cities in those empires. None of these chronologies stands in isolation. To make the most of all the available evidence, chronologists try to tie the various chronologies together in order to work out the absolute dating for all of them by combining the strengths of each. For this synchronisms must be found between two or more regions that can tie key events to a common moment.

To develop evidence of the synchronisms chronologists want and need, they require data in the form of carved reliefs, written documents, pictorial representations, etc. that can tie two or more individuals or events together at the same moment in time. Frequently, this requires additional analysis on the etymology of the various forms of people and place names that appear in different languages. It is entirely possible, for example, for Egyptian and Assyrian scribes to write contemporary accounts about a mutual war. In the absence of other documentation, it is possible to mistakenly believe that the two accounts are of two different wars because the names of all the people involved and all the places where they fought are likely to be different in the two languages. Sometimes the name differences are easier to analyze than at other times. So there is always some concern that the "current" chronology has some background level of missed synchronisms, phantom (duplicate) events, and misplaced persons or events.

A chronology should not be equated with history, nor should history be confused with the events themselves. History is an intellectual construct based on the available evidence and it is as dynamic as the evidence. New finds can overturn a well recognized history and any chronology derived from it. A chronology depends on the same evidence and on the current history of the times it tries to encompass. New evidence can always undermine it. Reexaminations of the evidence can force a re-write of the history and that will necessitate a revision of the chronology.

Who's Chronology is this?

I am merely trying to follow and understand what others have done. This chronology is not original; it is merely the current version of my ongoing attempts to understand the events of the ancient Near East as portrayed by the popular writings of the modern academic authors. It does not provide a critical reevaluation or reexamination of the fundamental evidence nor does it attempt to re-verify the generally accepted chronology. It does attempt on some small level to evaluate the claims by David M. Rohl that a significant reevaluation and revision of the Chronology of the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt is now justified. His attempted revision shortens the TIP and brings prior pharaonic periods forward to more recent times. This revision, in his view, radically effects the synchronisms that can be detected between the biblical accounts of the Israelites and Hebrews on the one hand and the pharaohs of Egypt and other powerful empires in the region. It should be remembered that this is all subject to change as I continue to study the evidence and revise my own views of the evidence.

I have learned, too, that it is seldom obvious what is "generally accepted" by the community of experts in this field. There is only one truly well accepted date that has wide-ranging significance for constructing chronologies of this region. That is the sack of Thebes in 664 or 671 BCE. All older dates "sit on top" of this one. It is a rather long stretch to extrapolate from this relatively modern date to the third millennium BCE. And the further a date is from this one, the more chances there are for intervening errors to accumulate. ¹⁴Carbon dating, dendrochronology and reports of unique astronomical sightings (eclipses, for example) can provide some fixed-time reference points with calculable error limits. Such dates can in turn be used to begin the assault on estimating some of the other uncertainties. I have not yet found any analysis of the type I envision. Though as the evidence accumulates someone is bound to take up that challenge, eventually.

From Relative to Absolute Dates

Professional archaeologists are trained to deal with ancient cultures without committing to a specific set of dates. They seek first to establish relative times based on identifiable layers in the cross-sections they excavate through the sites studied. (Astronomers use red-shifts the same way and for the same reason. Absolute dates are too hard to come by.) The relative chronologies can be analyzed, revised and corrected without committing to a specific dating scheme. There will be time to worry about pinning down the exact dates later after more evidence is available.

In developing a trans-regional chronology it is essential to discover synchronisms between the sub-regions. Evidence of correspondence between two kings, evidence of a meeting or a battle between two kings, evidence that the daughter of one king married another king are all examples of synchronisms. They serve to tie a point on one relative chronology to a specific point on another relative chronology. The more tightly one chronology is tied to another via mutual synchronisms, the more closely the intervening dates can be correlated to each other. This may allow unrecognized synchronisms to become more apparent.

The Hebrew Bible is potentially an invaluable source of many synchronisms between Canaan and its nearest mighty neighbors; provided that it can be demonstrated to have a considerable basis in fact. I am not convinced, however I am willing to use dates that rely on biblical synchronisms provided there is at least some independent source to back it up to some degree. Such uses have to be studied on a book-by-book and almost on a chapter by chapter basis. The problem with the Bible is that it has been around too long and subjected to too much revision. In the literal sense, archives buried and lost for 3,000 are more valuable to a chronologist because their provenance and provenience are easier to establish. Relative chronologies that rely on biblical stories without independent corroboration have to be considered very preliminary.

Because of their professional concern for establishing reliable relative dates, calendar dates are probably more interesting to amateurs than to professionals. Professional archaeologists, egyptologists, etc. understand that the relative dates are closer to their field data. It is the piece of the puzzle for which they are personally and professionally responsible. Relative dating is difficult enough. Absolute dates are always nice to have, but they can be overturned by new data coming from an unexpected source. The relative dates based on good field archaeology are more difficult to refute and provide a more secure legacy for an active career.

¹⁴Carbon dating has helped identify the absolute dates in some cases, but it has its own problems; lack of dateable samples, sample contamination, non-linearity in the changing ¹⁴Carbon background, statistical uncertainties inherent to the method itself, among others. The biggest problems with C-14 testing include:

• it is destructive (the same sample never gets analyzed twice);
• no one knows exactly what effects fires, bacterial/animal contamination, soil leaching, and miscellaneous unknown processes have on each sample;
• it is never "good" to much better than plus/minus 25 years (that is more than just few pharaohs during certain periods of Egyptian history); and
• its errors accumulate and get larger the older the sample gets.

Dendrochronology, potentially, offers much more precision, to within a year or two, however it has statistical and correlational problems^{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} of its own and it is not always possible to find a piece of wood that fits into a known dendrochronological sequence. Even with the wood in hand and a sequence within which to place it, there is often still some difficulty in determining where it belongs in that sequence. The atmospheric record based on the California bristlecone pine tree-ring record is a notable exception. There the record is complete and relatively clear for almost 8,500 years. Climate changes reflected in the bristlecone dendrochronological record have, for example, been correlated to volcanic eruptions, such as the eruption of Thera, in the Mediterranean Ocean south of Greece, now dated to 1627 BCE, plus or minus one year, based on the correlations between the historically dated eruptions and the bristlecone pine tree-ring record in California (unfortunately, the on-line archive at Nature does not seem to contain a copy of the original article by V. C. LaMarche and Katherine Hirsckboeck, "Frost rings in trees as records of major volcanic eruptions," Nature 307 (12 January, 1984), 121-126). There is still some discussion and disagreement even about this date, however. For another alternative explanation also see Michael G. L. Baillie's abstract for his paper presented at the conference on Natural Catastrophes during Bronze Age Civilisations held in 1997.

BTW: the Cornel University site linked to the beginning of the previous paragraph has links that will take you anywhere you want to go in the world of dendrochronoly on the web. It is a wonderful site which provides a good inside look at what goes on at the forefront of research in this area today.

To add even more confusion to the situation, it appears now that some Christian biblical research groups have already adopted this new dating with open arms. I personally like this date based on the type of study that was done. But there is no reason to enshrine it, yet. Correlations with other events in the region will have to be discovered through careful field research not delivered by prophecy.

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Anyone with specialized knowledge that supplements or corrects this timeline is welcome to e-mail suggested corrections and additions. Since even the consensus timeline inevitably evolves, both with time and additional field work by professional archaeologists, this one, which is hardly professional or original, is, like every other timeline, merely provisional. Which is to say it works well enough as a baseline reference for my purposes. For others, it may not work as well. All are welcome to consult it, provided everyone understands that it may contain significant errors or unwarranted speculation and may be revised at any time without notice.

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This is a collection of the dated events which I've encountered during my research on intertestamental Palestine. To begin the chronology I relied on a few general sources to give the Timeline a broad sweep and to give me some perspective on the relative timing of the events I was reading about. I have since added individual dates encountered casually during reading from a wide variety of on-line and off-line sources. The diversity of sources has resulted in a divergence of dates in many instances. For the moment I am not trying to rationalize the chronology into a single unified whole. (But see the notes above about using Clayton's and Rohl's pharaonic dates.)

This Timeline and the included historical information are indebted to numerous sources. Some of them are listed below.

• The original internet source was the on-line version of the touring Dead Sea Scrolls Exhibit sponsored by the Library of Congress and the Israel Antiquities Authority. Check out the on-line version at either the Sunsite - Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit or the UNC - Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit.
For a critique of the touring exhibition by a well respected scroll scholar whose opinion is independent of the Library of Congress, the participating museums, the Israel Antiquities Authority, and the current International Team of Editors, see Norman Golb's Letter, dated January 14, 1994, to Ms. Melissa Leventon, Curator of the Exhibit, and Mr. Harry S. Parker III, Director of the de Young Museum in San Francisco, the third stop on the Exhibit's United States tour. The letter was reprinted in The Aspin Institute Quarterly, v6#2 (Spring 1994) pp 79-98.]
• For population information the main on-line reference site is:
The Historical Estimates of World Population
• On-line sources for Egyptian Chronology include:
the King List,
the Ancient History Timeline,
a Chronology of Ancient Egypt,
the EAWC Chronology of Egypt, and
the History of Egypt page.
• On-line sources for dendrochronology research and results, in addition to those mentioned above, include:
The University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. Tree Rings and Volcanoes by Nigel Bruce and Jim Hunt.
Tree Ring and C-14 Dating
Search the Bibliography of Dendrochronology at the University of Arizona
• Some useful hardcopy sources (most published in paperback) include:
Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, The Reign by Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson, London and New York 1994, reprinted 1998).

Josephus, "The Jewish War", G. A. Williamson (trans.), and E. Mary Smallwood (revised with new introduction, notes and appendixes) (Penguin, London 1981).

Geza Vermes, "The Dead Sea Scrolls in English", Revised and Extended Fourth Edition (Penguin, London 1995).

Norman Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran (Touchstone, New York 1996).

"An Illustrated Atlas of the Bible" - Terrain Maps, Photographs, City Plans, Diagrams, Time Chart of Bible History, Gazetteer, Harry Thomas Frank (ed.), Roger S. Boraass (consultant for rev. ed.) (Maplewood, NJ: Broadman Press, 1990).

Frank Moore Cross, "The Ancient Library of Qumran", 3rd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995).

Note 1: BCE (Before the Common Era) is equivalent to, but used here in preference to, BC (Before Christ). CE (Common Era) is equivalent to, but is used here in preference to, AD (Anno Domini - Year of our Lord). These abbreviations appear to be used interchangeably in many publications. These abbreviations, as used here, always follow the year or range of years. If not included, BCE should be assumed unless the context makes CE the obvious choice.

Note 2: I've assembled this for my own benefit. I use it like a notepad for questions, comments, and speculations about historical events; many of which need further clarification. All are welcome to look over my shoulder (and make suggestions), but anyone using this timeline should understand that parts of it will always be in transition from one level of understanding on my part to another. This is not likely to become a well unified Timeline any time soon.

I've relied on expert sources for the backbone, but I've also included surmises which may upon further study turn out to be wrong. The real benefit of such a timeline for me, or any student, comes from assembling and studying it. While this one is available for anyone to consult, the highest purpose it could serve would be to stimulate others to do the same for themselves. The benefits of working through the details are enormous and eventually lead to a much better appreciation of the nature, scope, duration, complexity, and significance of the critical events that shaped the lives, governance, conflicts, economies, and religions of the people of intertestamental Palestine, in particular, and in the Middle East, more generally.

Note 3: If you have a comment, question or suggestion about any part of this timeline, please send me your e-mail. When you do, please "copy and paste" the appropriate section into your e-mail along with your message so that I can find the section(s) to which you refer with more certainty.

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Ancient Timeline

Qumran, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Israel, Samaria & Judaea, and Rome.

See also the Modern Timeline for Qumran, Israel and Jordan available at this site.

4.4 million BP
Earliest hominids (precursors of human lineage).

4 - 2 million BP
New hominid species in the direct human lineage, australopithecus afarensis, appears and inhabits Ethiopia, walks on two legs and lives in social groups. (Johannson and White)

1.8 million BP
Nutcracker Man lived in Tanzania; leaves footprints of one family group in the ash fall from a fresh volcanic eruption moistened by rainfall. Casts of their footsteps are covered by another ash fall and buried for almost two million years until discovered by Mary Leakey and her team.

1.8 million BP
Homo habilis or tool-making man appears.

1.7 million BP
Homo erectus, erect man, mistakenly thought to be the first bipedal hominid at the time it was classified, makes its first appearance in the fossil record.

c.1 million BP
Homo erectus migrated to Europe and Asia.

c. 500,000 BP
Homo neanderthalus diverges from the lineage that leads directly to modern humans and eventually distributes itself throughout Europe and western Asia.

c. 200,000 BP
The "Eve" hypothesis shows that the ancestress of modern humans lived in Africa at about this time.

100,000-40,000 BP
Neanderthal Man, in Africa and Europe. Both groups had to have migrated out of Africa through Palestine. There is no other route for them to take.

100,000+ BP
Homo sapiens, wise man, appears. There is still controversy over how much social interaction, ie interbreeding and competition, existed between early homo neanderthalus and proto-homo sapiens.

40,000-30,000 BP
Neanderthal Man in Europe is replaced by anatomically modern humans; probably Cro-magnon spreading out of Africa into Asia and Europe. Neanderthals die out during this period. (Recent analysis of Mitochondrial DNA now shows that humans and Neanderthals probably did not inter-breed after Neanderthals moved out of Africa.)

c. 25,000 BP
The Paleolithic period, beginning around 25,000 years ago, brought climatic changes which turned Egypt into a desert. The inhabitants survived by hunting and fishing and through a primitive form of cultivation. Desertification of Egypt was halted by rains which allowed communities of cultivators to settle in Middle Egypt and the Nile Delta. These farmers grew wheat, flax and wove linen fabrics in addition to tending flocks.

10,000-6,000 BCE
The most recent ice age ends. Humans begin the shift from a "Hunter Gatherer" subsistence, ie nomadic, life style to a settled "food cultivating" and animal domesticating life style in certain fertile regions (Western Asia; Egypt by 6,000 BCE).

The first indigenous civilizations in Egypt have been identified in the south of the country through archaeological excavations. The Badarian culture is the earliest known developed Egyptian civilization based on farming, hunting and mining. Badarians produced fine pottery and carved objects as well as acquiring turquoise and wood through trading.

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9,000 BCE  c. 8300 - 4500 BCE The Neolithic Period begins. The first permanent settlements appear; the domestication of plants (notably wheat) and animals (goats and sheep).  Neolithic Period, ca. 5450-3850 BC.  The Naqada lived in sizable settlements by about 4,000BC and produced decorated pottery and figurines made from clay and ivory which indicate they were a war-like people. Naqada artifacts from 3,300BC show further development both in terms of culture and technology. Evidence of irrigation systems and more advanced burial sites, as well as the use of alien materials like lapis lazuli, indicate a cultural diversity and the development of external trading.  5,000 BCE World Population estimates = 5 - 20 million. This is up from the estimates of 1 - 10 million in 10,000 BCE.

N E O L I T H I C   P  E  R I O D

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c. 4500 - 3200 BCE Chalcolithic Period.  Predynastic Period, ca. 4500-3200 BC Badarian,   ca. 4500-3800 BC  Naqada I,   ca. 3850-3650 BC  Naqada II,  ca. 3650-3300 BC  Naqada III, ca. 3300-3100 BC    4,000 BCE  World Population estimates = 7 - 25 million. Throughout most of its pre-dynastic history Egypt encompassed a multiplicity of settlements which gradually became small tribal kingdoms. These kingdoms evolved into two loosely confederated states: one encompassed the Nile valley up to the Delta (with the Naqada dominating) with Hierakonpolis as its capital, represented by the vulture goddess Nekhbet and the White Crown (hedjet); the other encompassed the Delta, with Buto as its capital and was represented by the cobra goddess Wadjet of Buto and the Red Crown (deshret). The two lands could also be represented as the combined Land of the Two Ladies (Nekhbet and Wadjet) and by the combined Double Crown (shmty). Horus (gd) was the son of the goddess Hathor and the god of Hierakonpolis in upper Egypt. The two kingdoms vied for power over all the land of Egypt. This struggle led to the victory of the south and the unification of the Two Lands in approx. 3100BC under the command of Menes who is also sometimes known as Narmer. This was the beginning of the dynastic period of the Pharaohs.  Here is a map of Lower Egypt (see J. Nicols course description at the University of Oregon) from a later period with the most prominent cites and branches of the Nile River, for reference. Here are the maps of the 22 Nomes of Upper Egypt and the 20 Nomes of Lower Egypt for reference. These probably find their identities in the pre-history of Egypt before unification in the pharaonic period. Dominant families of the Nomes maintained considerable power in their regions even after the unification. In some nomes the priestly class of one or more temple cults held or shared most of the political power in the region. During some periods the continued unification of Egypt depended heavily on the cooperation and possibly even the consent of these regional powers. Her is a map of Egypt with most of the major cities for reference. c. 3580 BCE Mt Vesuvius erupts (Too early yet for dendrochronology to pinpoint, unfortunately). Ghassulian culture in Palestine. 3500 BCE    The Egyptian Civil Calendar and the Great Sothic Cycle. See More Details about the Great Sothic Cycle in a separate browser window.   c. 3300 BCE   Early Bronze urban culture in Palestine.

C H A L C O L I T H I C   P  E  R I O D

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c. 3200 - 2200 BCE   Early Bronze Age. End of the Pre-Dynasty Period. See More Details about the Pre-Dynastic Period in a separate browser window. c. 3020 - 2650 BCE 0th Dynasty (3020 - 2920) See More Details about the 0th Dynasty in a separate browser window. The earliest hieroglyphs appear at about the beginning of the pharaonic age. See More Details about the five names of the pharaohs in a separate browser window.   3,000 BCE World Population estimates = 14 - 42 million. With the beginning of the Bronze age, the baby boom really got underway. The tools for conquest, a growing population of fighters, and agricultural methods capable of supporting large cities worth conquering were all combining to play their roles. It is probably no accident that the events of world history start to leave their traces in the form of written records at about this time. Writing had to be invented in order to manage the governments with rapidly expanding populations and to handle the logistics of the wars they inflicted on each other. c. 2900 - 2800 BCE   365-day calendar introduced. See More Details about the Egyptian 365 Day Calendar in a separate browser window.   c. 2900 BCE     Egyptian hieroglyphs' first appearance, other than for naming kings, I presume.   c. 2920 BCE     1st Dynasty (2920 - 2770) This period is shrouded in mythology. Little is known of Menes and his descendants outside their claim of divine ancestry and that they developed a complex social system, patronized the arts and constructed temples and many public buildings.  The foundation of Memphis, the world's first imperial city, is attributed to Menes. From Memphis the third and fifth kings of the First Dynasty set out to conquer the Sinai. During the First Dynasty culture became increasingly refined. The royal burial grounds at Saqqara and Abydos became sites of highly developed mastabas.  Hor-Aha ("The Fighting Hawk")   (Ivory label found in the tomb of Queen Nithotep with the two names Hor-Aha and Men in the upper right. The Horus falcon on top of one serekh faces to the right. This label must be read right to left making Men the more  important name.)  (The Horus-name of Aha, from a piece of pottery at the British Museum.) Men (nebti name)  Aha's more common name, Men (from Herodotus according to Manetho), means "established." This may be the source of the name Menes (M and TRC) attributed to the first pharaoh in later records. Probably the son of Narmer, possibly by Queen Nithotep. His Horus name of Hor-Aha means "fighting hawk" and indicates his Upper Egyptian origin. The use of the name Men as his nebti name as ruler of the combined Kingdoms is demonstrated by the appearance of both names, side by side, on an ivory label found in the tomb of Queen Nithotep.  One of Hor-Aha's major accomplishment was founding the capital city Memphis. It's location, just south of the apex of the Nile Delta, indicates the importance this geographical and political center played in uniting and maintaining the combined kingdoms. Memphis became one of the greatest cities in the ancient world. Beginning with the founding of Memphis, the Egyptian kings began to construct their tombs at the sacred site of Abydos in Middle Egypt, while the nobility constructed theirs at Saqqara on the edge of the desert plateau overlooking Memphis. There is contention about whether or not the kings built at both sites.  His Queen may have been named Berner-Ib (literally "Sweet-heart"). Her name appears on a small label found in a tomb near his at Abydos. Her name also appeared on items from his possible-mother's great tomb at Naqada. His mother or a wife (possibly his principle wife), named Neithhotep is also known and is shown wearing the the red crown of Lower Egypt. It seems clear that he also has roots in Upper Egypt as well as lower Egypt, either by birth or by marriage, and that most of Egypt was united under his rule. Manetho reports that he fought foreign expeditions and won renown, but was killed when carried off by a hippopotamus.   Manetho lists his as a 62 year reign while the TRC lists no reign length. Iti (TRC) Simply listed in the TRC as "The King of [Upper and Lo]wer Egypt It[i]". Could this be Neithhotep, the queen of Aha listed as a ruler in her own right? It could also be a son or brother who served as co-regent but did not survive the end of Aha's reign. This king appears not to be part of Manetho's list, unless it is Kenkenes, or Queen Neith-hotep, and the Canon does not give a reign length.   Djer ("Horus Who Succours")  Djer is probably Manetho's Athothis (M), the son of Menes (M), and the Canon's Iteti (TRC), credited with a 57 year reign (M) or a reign of 10+X years, 28 days (TRC). His Horus name is consistent with Manetho's comment that he was a physician whose anatomical works were extant at the time Aegyptiaca was composed. Manetho also credits him with building a (the?) royal palace for himself at Memphis. Merneith (Beloved of Neith) (Queen Merneith's stela from Abydos.) Merneith was Queen, consort of Djer, and may have ruled alone for a time after his death. Alternatively, she may have ruled only as regent during the minority of her son Den. Finally, she might have ruled during both periods. She is the first recorded female pharaoh of Egypt. Manetho does not appear to mention her, although it is interesting that he does list eight pharaohs and this dynasty includes eight if she is included. The Canon does not mention her.  Her name appears on a clay seal impression from Abydos that gives the names of the early kings in order from Narmer to Den. This confirms her status as ruler and gives her the title "King's Mother", presumably of Den.  The remaining six names in Manetho's list are difficult to assign to the remaining known pharaohs. Remembering that the first two might need to be reversed, and including Mereneith, the simplest pairings go like this (with source comparisons of the pharaonic names and reign lenghts):  A modern Manetho's Manetho's Manetho's list of pharaohs pharoahs pharaohs pharaonic (Africanus) (Eusebius (Eusebius, names from Syncellus) Armenian ver) ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Narmer Hor-Aha Menes 62 Menes 60 y Menes 30 Iti Djer Athothis 57 Athothis 27 " Athothis 27 Mereneith Kenkenes 31 Kenkenes 39 " Cencenes 39 Djet Uenephes 23 Uenephes 42 " Vavenephis 42 Den Usaphaidos 20 Usaphais 20 " Usaphais 20 Anedjib Miebidos 26 Niebais 26 " Niebais 26 Semerkhet Semempses 18 Semempses 18 " Mempses 18 Qa'a Bieneches 26 Ubienthes 26 " Vibenthis 26 Assuming that Manetho meant to leave Mereneith off the list, if he even knew of her, then either we are missing a pharaoh or Manetho is simply wrong. Most assume the latter, but perhaps evidence for a missing pharaoh will yet be found. One alternative is to put Narmer back into the First Dynasty, take out Merneith, and then assign Manetho's full list in order, something like this (though this is hardly likely to be the final answer): A modern Manetho's TRC Early Egyptologists list of pharaohs pharoahs recognized only pharaohs these 6 pharoahs ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Narmer Menes Menes xx y Menes Hor-Aha (Men) Iti Kenkenes Iti Atoti I Djer Athothis Iteti Atoti II Merneith Djet Uenephes Itiui Atoti III Den Usaphaidos Semti Usaphais Anedjib Miebidos Merbiapen Miebis Semerkhet Semempses Semsem Qa'a Bieneches Kebehu Usaphaidos and Kenkenes are thought by some to be two names for the same pharaoh. Djet ("Horus Cobra") (Djet's stone stela from Abydos.) Louvre Collection Also known as Uadji or Wadj, or Itiui ( TRC). Possibly Manetho's Uenephes (M) with a reign length of 42 years. The Canon does not give a reign length. His is Tomb Z at Abydos. His funery stela is one of the finest early works of sculpture known and now resides in the Louvre. Manetho reports that during his reign a famine seized the land, and that he built the pyramids near Kachome (Cho - Eusebius Armenian version). Den ("Horus who Strikes") (Ivory label of Den from Abydos.) Also known as Udimu or Semti (TRC). Possibly Manetho's Usaphaidos and/or Kenkenes. His Throne Name was Semti (TRC), titled King of the Two Lands (nsw-bt). Den has been identified with a king from the Abydos King List named Hesepti. This name can then be identified via the Canon's Semti with Manetho's Usaphaidos who reigned for 20 years. The Canon does not give a reign length.   The Palermo Stone appears to record the last 14 years of his reign, though the king's name is missing. Assigning the subsequent records on the Palermo Stone to the reigns of his successors depends entirely on the validity of this particular correlation. Their names and order of reigns, on the other hand, are known with more certainty because they appear in an inscription on a stone vase from the galleries beneath the step pyramid at Saqqara. This sequence of rulers has also been confirmed by a list given on a clay seal from Abydos.  His chancellor was Hemaka, whose tomb at Saqqara (no. 3035) was originally assigned to Den. This tomb was excavated by W. B. Emery in 1935. Emery also examined a large tomb at Giza which, based on architectural similarity, he considered likely to be that of Den's Queen. Her name is unknown. Anedjib ("Safe is His Heart") If we identify Anedjib as Manetho's Miebidos (26 years) or as Merbiapen (74 years, TRC). In the Canon the year symbol and the number are both clear, but what is not clear is whether this refers to the reign or lifetime. In all these early pharaohs, the Canon could be referring to age at death. This seems especially likely since most of them are so long. They could also be mythic reign lengths. He is recorded on the Saqqara King List as a Thinite King (and assumed, therefore, to be from This). There seems to be some unspecified evidence for struggle between north and south.  His tomb at Abydos is among the smallest and worst built of the royal tombs. Semerkhet ("Thoughtful Friend") Semerkhet ruled for 9 years according to the Palermo Stone, or 18 years according to Manetho; as Semempsis (M), or for 72 (reign? or lifetime?) years as Semsem (TRC). It has been suggested the he was a usurper of Anedjib's throne. He erased the name of his predecessor from many stone vases where it should have appeared below Semerkhet's and Semerkhet himself was omitted from the Saqqara King List. Manetho reports that during his reign there were many portents and that a very great calamity (a "pestilence" in Eusebius' Armenian version) befell Egypt. Qa'a or Kaa ("His Arm is Raised") (Qa'a wearing the white crown of the south and embraced by falcon-headed Horus.) Louvre Museum. He may have reigned for 26 years (M). The uncertainty arises because Manetho lists Bieneches as the last king of this dynasty. That hardly equates to Qa'a in any known linguistic sense. He is also known as Kebehu who ruled for 63 years ( TRC). The Canon uses a large dot (sometimes translated as idem) apparently to indicate a repeat of the symbol for "years" above, but it is still not clear if this should be read as reign length or lifetime. Two fragmented stele were found by Petrie on the east side of his tomb at Abydos bearing his full Horus name in a serekh. A stela of his, now in the Louvre, assumed to be from Abydos as well, shows him wearing the white crown of the south and embraced by falcon-headed Horus. The white crown also forms part of his name (Qa'a-hedjet) in the serekh above the heads of the two figures. This has been taken by some as a symbol of the final victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt during his reign.     c. 2800 - 2360 BCE Sumarian (Persian) city states formed along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. c. 2770 BCE     2nd Dynasty (2770 - 2650) The Second Dynasty was characterized by regional disputes and a decentralization of Pharaonic authority, a process which was only temporarily halted by the Pharaoh Raneb. These regional contentions were very likely the outcome of the unresolved conflict between the two deities Horus in the south and Seth in the Delta. Theistic rivalry seems to have been resolved by Khasekhem, the last Pharaoh of the Second Dynasty.  Unusual for a change of dynasty, these kings are also said to be from This (or Thinis in some renditions), near Abydos, and are called Thinite Kings by Manetho. He lists nine 2nd Dynasty Pharaohs which are assigned to the known five (or six) as follows:  Hetepsekhemwy = Boethos (M) 38 years  Reneb = Kaiechos (M) 39 "  Nynetjer = Binothris (M) 47 "  Seth-Peribsen = Tlas (M) 19 "  = Sethenes (M) 41 "  = Chaires (M) 17 "  = Nephercheres (M) 25 "  (Khasekhem?) = Sesokhris (M) 48 "  Khasekhemwy = Huzefa (M) 30 "  There is no archeological evidence for the other three (or four in those versions which hold that Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy are the same person) pharaohs on Manetho's list.  Since it appears that Khasekhemwy is the son of Seth-Peribsen, he would have been at least 53 before becoming pharaoh if his predecessor ruled for 48 years, but there is then no room for the three missing pharaohs to fit into his one lifetime if all reigns are consecutive.  The three missing pharaohs might be reconciled if there were overlapping rules in different parts of the country. If so, the secession was allowed to continue for a surprisingly long time.  On the other hand, these three may have been priestly claimants to the religious authority of the pharaoh who also took the pharonic title, at least in the priestly records consulted by Manetho. Some hint of such a struggle appears in the fact that Sekhemib dropped his Horus name in favor of a Seth name. Perhaps this indicates that the followers of Seth seized the upper hand in a religious struggle during his reign. Significantly, Khasekhemwy's serekh is topped by both the Horus-bird and the Seth-animal, indicating, perhaps, a reuniting of the two contending parties in his reign.  Hetepsekhemwy ("Pleasing in Powers") His name is sometimes spelled Hotepsekhemwi. Also known as Baw-netjer (TRC) who ruled for 95 years. Again the Canon uses the idem to indicate a repeat of the year without clarifying the reign or lifetime question. Reneb ("Re is the Lord") Also known as Kakaw (TRC), but the Canon doesn't include any year formula for this pharaoh.  Nynetjer ("Godlike") Also known as Banetjer (TRC) who ruled for 95 years. The idem is missing or unreadable in the Canon and the reign lenght versus lifetime question remains unanswered. Seth-Peribsen (Seth name "Hope of all Hearts") He came to the throne with the Horus name Sekhemib ("Powerful in Heart"). A lacuna in the Canon has been been partially read as the sign for the sound "s", which some have taken as an indication that the name Wadjnes is missing. This name is known from other king lists and is assumed by some to be another name for Seth-Peribsen/Sekhemib. In the Canon the number of years looks like 54 to me, and no idem is legible, so the question of reign length versus lifetime remains open.   Sethenes (M) Also known as Sened (TRC). He is listed as having a reign of either 41 years (M) or 70 years (TRC), and the question of reign length vesus lifetime is still unanswered. He is not known from any contemporary source. Nephercheres (M) Aaka (?) (TRC), although some have interpreted this as an error in the Canon which should either Neferka or Ankhka. His reign length if he is Manetho's Neferkheres is listed as 25 years (M). The Canon does not mention a reign length for this pharaoh. He is not known from any contemporary source.  Sesokhris (M) Neferkasokar (TRC) with a reign length of either 46 years (M) or 8 years 3 months (TRC). The idem appears twice in the Canon, once on either side of the "3", implying that, originaaly, the numbers of days or his lifetime might have been included or intended next. Not known from any contemporary source.   (Khasekhem(?) or possibly, but not necessarily very likely, Manetho's Chaires in a different order. The Canon scribe wrote "Erased" (TRC) for the name when he could not read it on the original document he was consulting. Depending on how it should be read, the reign length is probably either 1 year, 8 months, 4 days (TRC) or 8 years 4 months (TRC). The inclusion of his life time, listed as 34 years, is based on the same formula being used for Djoser a couple of lines later. Khasekhemwy (Horus/Seth name: "The Two Powerful Ones appear") Also known as Bebti (TRC) with a reign length of 27 years, 2 months, 1 day, (TRC), and his age given as 40 + x years (TRC). Inclusion of his age is based on the same formula used in the (TRC) for Djoser a couple of lines later, but is indicated here only by the use of what is assumed to be a repetition mark. He apparently married a northern princess named Nemathap, who is titled "The King-bearing Mother", in order to cement the two kingdoms. She is considered the founding mother of the following 3rd Dynasty.      c. 2650 BCE     OLD KINGDOM (2650 - 2152) The age of Pyramid builders. The pyramids of Giza and Dahshur were built during this period. Some date this era to the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty.     3rd Dynasty (2650 - 2575)   Use of the cartouche to enclose royal names first appears during this dynasty. The Turin Royal Canon also uses the cartouche for the earlier names, however, since it was clearly written at a much later period, those cartouches are merely updated versions of the orginal serekh based names.   Sanakhte ("Strong Protection") Also known as Nebka (2650 - 2630) Netjerikhet ("Divine of the Body")   Step Pyramid complex of King Djoser at Sakkara Also known as Djoser (Zoser)or Djoser-it ( TRC)(2630 - 2611) Step pyramid at Sakkara (Imhotep was his architect)   At right is the life-size statue of Djoser found in the serdab of his pyramid complex. Cairo Museum. Sekhemkhet ("Powerful in Body") Also known as Djoser Teti (2611 - 2603) Khaba ("The Soul Appears") (2603 - 2599) Huni ("The Smiter") (2599 - 2575)  Huni may have been the pharaoh responsible for starting, if not also finishing, the Pyramid at Meidum. Snefru is usually credited with building three pyramids, including this one, but there are doubts that one pharaoh built all three. No pharaoh was every buried in the pyramid, apparently. The surrounding temple complex, and presumably the pyramid itself seem to have survived until at least the 18th Dynasty based on a graffito at the site.       c. 2575 BCE     4th Dynasty (2575 - 2467)   Snefru (Birth name: "He of Beauty") Also known as Sneferu, Snofru, Soris (M) (2575 - 2551). He was the son of Huni and minor wife Meresankh I. He married Hetepheres I (probably his half-sister by Huni and a more senior queen, who therefore carried the royal blood line, but whose name is unknown). This marriage was required in order to maintain the matrilineal line of descent. Anyone else who might have married her would have had a better claim to their father's throne than Snefru himself.    (The Bent Pyramid of Snefru at Dashur) Khufu (Birth name: "Protected by [Khnum]") Also known as Cheops/Kheops (Greek), Suphis I (M) (2551 - 2528). Son of Snefru and Hetepheres I. Great Pyramid at Giza    (The Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza) Djedefre (Birth name: "Enduring like Re") Also known as Djedefra, Redjedef, Radjedef (2528 - 2520) Khafre (Birth name: "Appearing like Re") Also known as Khafra, Rakhaef, Chephren/Khephren (Greek), Suphis II (M) (2520 - 2494) Second Pyramid at Giza and Sphinx Menkaure (Birth name: "Eternal like the Souls of Re") Also known as Menkaura, Mycerinus/Mykerinus (Greek), Mencheres (M) (2490 - 2472) Third Pyramid at Giza   At right is the slate triad of Menkaure wearing the white crown, flanked by the goddess Hathor, with the sun's disk and cow's horns headress, and by the personification of the Hathor name, with her nome sign on her head. Both ladies have the face of Menkaure's queen, Khamerernebty II.  Shepseskaf (Birth name: "His Soul is Noble") (2472 - 2467)     c. 2500 - 2300 BCE Amorite invasions of Palestine. c. 2465 BCE     5th Dynasty (2465 - 2323)   Userkaf Userkaf (2465 - 2458)  Sahure Sahure (2458 - 2446) Neferirkare Neferirkare Kakai (2446 - 2426) Shepseskare Shepseskare Ini (2426 - 2419) Neferefre Raneferef (2419 - 2416) Niuserre Niuserre Izi (2416 - 2392) Menkauhor Menkauhor (2396 - 2388) Djedkare Djedkare Izezi (2388 - 2356) Unas Wenis (2356 - 2323)

E A R L Y   B R O N Z E   A G  E   I-III

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c. 2360 BCE  Beginning of the Akkadian Empire (Persia). Sargon I (2360-2305 BCE) of Akkad. Approximate beginning of the Early Bronze Age IV (2300-2100 BCE). c. 2354 - 2345 BCE Possibly the oldest dendrochronolically dated eruption, Hekla 4 in Iceland. There is some speculation about this eruption's possible role in sparking the beginnings of the Bronze Age, coming, possibly only coincidentaly, as it does so close to the beginning of that age as determined by other methods. The whole topic area of the effects of climate on tree ring growth and the inverse problem of estimating climate from ancient tree rings data are widely discussed, as one summary essay suggests. 2350 - 2075 Some evidence suggests that this was a period of extreme climate change in which a drying climate caused major population shifts along with the drought-like conditions evidenced throughout Western Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and North Africa. It is further suggested that this climate change sparked the end of the Early Bronze Age. Dropping lake levels, including a large decrease in the Nile flood, may have caused to the turbulant political situation which produced the First Intermediate Period in Egypt. The return to a more normal climate at around 2000-1900 is then used to explain the return to the more stable political organization that marked the appearance of the Middle Kingdom. This may have occurred in two phases. The first, around 2350, may have induced some early problems which were not by themselves so devastating. The second phase, from about 2200 to 2000, may have been much more severe. c. 2323 BCE     6th Dynasty (2323 - 2152)   Teti Teti (2323 - 2291) Pepi I Pepy I (Meryre) (2289 - 2255) Merenre Merenre Nemtyemzaf (2255 - 2246) Pepi II Pepy II (Neferkare) (2246 - 2152) Some sources mention two more pharoahs at the end of this Dynasty. Merenre II Probably the son of Pepi II and Neith. Queen Nitocris Thought to be the wife of Merenre II. Manetho describes her as braver than all the men of her time, the most beautiful of all women, with fair skin and red cheeks. No archaeological evidence for her reign has been found, nor for Herodotus' story that she avenged the assasination of her brother (Teti I?) by tricking the murders into drowning before herself commiting suicide. The Turin Royal Canon, in column IV , lines 16 to 17, has been interpreted as reading that this dynasty ended 955 years, 10 days after the beginning of Menes reign, which is a bit off from the 769 years given in this chronology.

E A R L Y   B R O N Z E   A G  E    IV

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c. 2150 BCE     FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (2150 - 1986)  This was a very turbulent period. The centralized government collapsed. Many pharaohs claimed overlapping parts of Egypt and had overlapping reigns. Mentuhotep I (sometimes mistakenly referred to Mentuhotep II) eventually imposed order in 1986 BCE and established his capital at Thebes, thereby reuniting the thrones of Upper and Lower Egypt.      7th and 8th Dynasties (2150 - 2135)    Wadjkare Qakare Iby     c. 2135 BCE     9th and 10th Dynasties (2135 - 1986) (Herakleopolitan) Approximate beginning of the Middle Bronze Age I (2100-1900 BCE).  Meryibre Khety Merykare Kanrferre Nebkaure Akhtoy     c. 2080 BCE     11th Dynasty (2080 - 1986) (Theban) Mostly Theban nomarks until the victory of Mentuhotep I over the northern monarchs (9th and 10th Dynasties) who ruled from the Faiyum. His victory in 1986 and the resultant reunification of the two lands marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (1986 - 1937).  Intef I or Inyotef Sehertawy (2080 - 2064) Intef II or Inyotef Wahankh (2064 - 2015) Intef III or Inyotef Nakhjtnebtepnefer (2015 - 2007) Mentuhotep I Nebhetepre (2007 - 1986)     2,000 BCE  World Population estimates = 27 - 67 million. In the first half of this millennium begins the oral tradition surrounding Abraham and the sojourn in Egypt. The solar calendar is developed and adopted in Egypt. c. 1986 BCE     MIDDLE KINGDOM (1986 - 1759)  This period is characterized by extensive international commerce and enormous building projects. The era is also known for its refinement in jewelry design. Economic prosperity and an artistic renaissance persisted for a long time until Egypt was again, eventually, wracked by internal problems.  Mentuhotep I reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th Dynasty rivals.     11th Dynasty (1986 - 1937), continuation    Mentuhotep I Nebhetepre (1986 - 1956) following his victory over the northern 9th and 10th Dynasties Mentuhotep II Sakhkare (1956 - 1944) Mentuhotep III Nebtawyre (1944 - 1937)     c. 1950 BCE  Fall of Ur.

M I D D L  E    B R O N Z E   A G E   I

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c. 1937 BCE    12th Dynasty (1937 - 1759)  Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II A (1900-1700 BCE).  Amenemhet I Amenemhat I (Sehetepibre) (1937 - 1908) Reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th Dynasty rivals.  Senusret I   Sesostris I Senwosret I (Kheperkare) (1917 - 1872) Amenemhet II Amenemhat II (Nubkaure) (1875 - 1840) Senusret II Senwosret II (Khakheperre)> (1842 - 1836) Senusret III Sesostris III Senwosret III (Khakaure) (1836 - 1817) A comparison of the face at left with the face on his seated statue in the Louvre (at right) suggests that these provide a very good likeness of the man himself. The heavy lidded eyes and the size and shape of the ears plus the overall shape and expression of the face show remarkable artistic attention to detail and presumably to accuracy. Amenemhet III Amenemhat III (Nimaatre) (1817 - 1772), He is also called King Moeris by Herodotus; built Nile-flood catchment at Faiyum and Labyrinth at Hawara.  (Statuette of Amenemhat III - Louvre Collection)  Amenemhet IV Amenemhat IV (Maakherure) (1772 - 1763) Queen Sobeknerfu Neferusobek (Sobekkare) (1763 - 1759)     c. 1850 BCE Abraham leaves Mesopotamia for Canaan (Gen 12).  c. 1759 BCE    SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1759 - 1539)  Egypt is disorganized and weak, possibly due to a famine. The Hyksos conquer Egypt. Eventually, the Theban princes recover their power. Kamose finally defeats the Hyksos. My sources show many internal inconsisencies both about how many pharaohs ruled and their names, as well as when they ruled and what parts of the country they controlled. This is definitely a messy period to sort out. This work is an attempt to put together the most consistent version possible. Perhaps the most one should hope to settle about the the Second Intermediate Period is how long it lasted and not worry too much about the details of the various pharaohs' reigns.    13th Dynasty (1759 - c.1621)  Some believe this dynasty begins with 21 pharaohs over 63 years (1759 - 1696), although the number of pharaohs and the time span are both in dispute. Some of these may have been only regional chieftains. Many of the names are not known from any monumental inscriptions; some only from scarabs. The 14th Dynasty overlaps the latter part of the 13th, and there may be, for any given pharaoh, some question of where each should be placed. Here we begin with Wegef. After that it gets a little messy.  Khutawyre (Throne name: "Re Protects the Two Lands") Wegaf (1759 - 1755) (Birth name)  Sankhibre (Throne name: "The Heart of Re Lives") Ameny Intef IV Amenemhet V (? - 1736) Also known as Ameny Intef (Birth name, "Amun is at the Head") Auyibre (Throne name: "Re Succours the Heart") Hor (c. 1736) (Birth name) Ruled for a few months. He was buried at Dashur. Sekhemre Khutawy (Throne name: "Powerful is Re, Protector of the Two Lands") Amenemhet VI Sobekhotep II (c. 1726) (Birth name: "Amun is at the Head, Pleasing to the god Sobek"). Also known as Sebekhotpe II. He was probably buried at Dashur. Userkare (Throne name: "The Soul of Re is Powerful") Khendjer (c. 1723) (Birth name) Buried at the Pyramid, South Saqqara. Sekhemre Sewadjtawy (Throne name: "Powerful is Re, He makes the Two Lands Flourish") Sobekhotep III (c. 1721) (Birth name: "Pleasing to the god Sobek") The time span between the inferred date for Sobekhotep III and the reign of  Neferhotep I ranges from 4 to 25 years. --------------- The "mini-dynasty" --------------- begins with the reigns of three brothers. Khasekhemre (Throne name: "Beautiful is the Soul of Re") Neferhotep I (1696 - 1685) (Birth name: "Beautiful and Pleasing"). Also known as Neferhotpe I.  Sihathor (1685 - 1685) This brother may not have had an independent reign of his own, he may only have reigned as co-regenent with one or both of his brothers.  Khaneferre (Throne name: "Beautiful is the Soul of Re") Sobekhotep IV (1685 - 1678) (Birth name: "Pleasing to the god Sobek") Sobekhotep V (1678 - 1674) (Birth name: "Pleasing to the god Sobek") I have some concern that this is really Sobekhotep IV, not a separate king. Iaib (1674 - 1664) Merneferre (Throne name: "Beautiful is the Desire of Re") Ay (1664 - 1641) (Birth name) Also known as Aya. --------------- End of "mini-dynasty" --------------- 9 kings in approx. 20 years (1641 - c.1621), including the one mentioned here. Neferhotep II

M I D D L E   B R O N Z  E    A G E   IIA

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c. 1728 BCE  Hammurabi (1728 - 1686 BCE), of the Old Babylonian Empire. c. 1720 - 1550 BCE    The Hyksos Invaders from Asia, conquer parts of Egypt, staying mostly in the Delta but also venturing further south at times.. This seems to be 100 years too soon for those of us using the lower chronology, ie most recent chronology, which tends to pull most events toward the modern era.    c. 1700 BCE  Jacob and twelve of his sons settle in Egypt (Gen 46). Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II B (1700-1600 BCE). c. 1650 BCE  Construction of the fortress/temple of Baal-berith at Shechem. Probable scene of Joshua's subsequent covenant (Joshua 9:4f.).   c. 1628 BCE   Eruption of Thera/Santorini (radiocarbon date: 1640±30; consensus date: 1680-1670); 1628-26 confirmed by dendrochronology (bristlecone pine tree ring dates) of growth ring damage from frosts correlated to major eruptions during the past 5,500 years. This appears to be 200 years too soon to explain the demise of the Minoan society on Crete. There is no known earthquake candidate for that time so a tidal wave related to a volcanic event seems to be ruled out; unless the Minoan date is revised back to the correct time of the Thera eruption. Crete was certainly effected by this eruption, but whether or not the Empire was destroyed by it is again an open question. Interestingly, studies of tree rings in the Near East also show an event at exactly same time. There the effect of expected increases in cloud cover and soil moisture had the predictable effect of spurring rings of increased thickness due to enhanced growing conditions. c. 1621 BCE    14th Dynasty (? - c.1621)  Manetho's 14th Dynasty may have ruled just one of several delta-kingdoms thought to have arisen during the Second Intermediate Period; this line of "Pharaohs" may have ruled from Avaris (Auaris) in the eastern-delta region.  76 (?) minor rulers of the delta;        contemporary with the second-half 13th Dynasty Nehesy      15th Dynasty (1633 - 1625)  Manetho calls this Dynasty "Hyksos" -- 'shepherd-kings.'  The Hyksos drive the native Pharaohs south as far as Thebes and retain the whole of Lower (northern) Egypt to themselves. The Hyksos rule from Avaris for at least a century before being driven out of the Nile Valley and trapped at Avaris by the Theban 17th Dynasty. Then the Hyksos are pushed out of the Delta by Ahmose. His three year siege of their last remaining stronghold at Shjaruhen, near Gaza, drives the Hyksos completely out of Egypt. Ahmose and his successors chased them into and through the Levant.  Sheshi Yakubber Khyan   Apepi I Apepi II  Salitis (Shalek?) Bnon Apachnan (Khyan) Iannas (Iannassi son of Khyan) Apophis (Auserre Apepi) Assis (Khamudy?)

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16th Dynasty  32 minor 'Hyksos' (?) kings contemporary with the 15th & 17th Dynasties.  Anather Yakobaam    17th Dynasty (1606 - 1539)  15 Theban Pharaohs. Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Intef VII Tao I Tao II Kamose    Tao I (Senakhtenre) Tao II (Sekenenre) Kamose (Wadjkheperre) (? - 1539)      c. 1550 BCE  Traditional dating for the destruction of Jericho (Middle Bronze II C - 1600-1550 BCE). See also 1400 BCE for an alternative dating.

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c. 1539 BCE    NEW KINGDOM (1539 - 1069)  The victory of the teenage King Ahmose over the Hyksos signaled the beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt. Following the expulsion of the invaders, Egypt began a rapid expansion of its military power and cast a watchful eye far from its immediate borders. It also began to exercise control over its immediate neighborhood, including the incorporation of a large northern kingdom in Palestine and Syria. This became the buffer zone between Egypt and anyone who would attempt to conquer it again. Failure to maintain this buffer zone opened up the opportunity exploited by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 671 when he attacked Egypt. Seven years later in 664 his successor, Ashurbanipal, sacked Thebes and Egypt was again a captive nation. Approximate beginning of the Late Bronze Age I (1550-1400 BCE).  Prosperity and revivals in the arts and building projects hallmark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the power of the priesthood corrupted the central government. During the 20th Dynasty even the officials were robbing tombs. The priesthood became hereditary and began to assume considerable secular power. The government eventually broke down.  The foundation of the New Kingdom is usually viewed as marking the end of the Middle Bronze Age (2100-1550 BCE) in Canaan, though there has been controversy on this point.    18th Dynasty (1539 - 1295)  Thebans in this Dynasty were directly descended from the 17th Dynasty and wore the dual crown of Upper and Lower Egypt.  Ahmose I Ahmose (Nebpehtyre) (1539 - 1514) Amenhotep I Amenhotep I (Djeserkare) (1514 - 1493) Tuthmosis I Thutmose I (Akheperkare) (1493 - 1481) Tuthmosis II Thutmose II (Akheperenre) (1481 - 1479) Queen Hatshepsut   Hatshepsut (Maatkare) (1473 - 1458) Not the first female Pharaoh. She named herself senior co-regent on the death of her husband. She was powerful enough to prevent his son, her nephew,  from exercising his power for about half of his nominal reign (his age 7 to 21 during the regency years), plus after her co-regency ended, her supporters marginalized the boy-king's power until after her death. The Battle of Megiddo. may have taken place during her half of the reign. No one knows what happened to her. Thutmose III eventually gained control over Egypt and when he did he took steps to completely obliterate her name from every monument.  Tuthmosis III   Tuthmosis III Tuthmose III (Menkheperre) (1479 - 1425),        the 'Napoleon of Egypt'.   (Relief of Tuthmosis III from Elephantine Island, Temple of Satis - Louvre Collection)  Amenhotep II Amenhotep II (Akheperure) (1427 - 1392) Tuthmosis IV (Bust of Tuthmosis IV)  Thutmose IV (Menkheperure) (1392 - 1382) Amenhotep III Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre) (1382 - 1344) Lion with the face of Amenhotep III and his chief wife Queen Tiye. She was either the mother or grandmother of Tutankhamun and possibly the mother or grandmother of Smenkhkare. Amenhotep IV       (Akhenaten)   Pharaoh Akhnaton: Amenhotep IV  (Painted limestone pair statuette of Akhenaten and Nerfertiti, Louvre Collection) Amenhotep IV (Neferkheperure) (1352 - 1336);  [the new name Akhenaten ('spirit of the Aten') taken during 4th year of his reign.] He attempted to introduce monotheism into Egypt, overthrowing the traditional state religions of Egypt, and directly threatened the power of the entrenched priesthood. His successors took steps to completely obliterate his name from every monument. King And Queen with Children.   Aknhaton and Family Worshipping Aton  Nefertiti Painted Limestone Bust of Nefertiti  Neferneferuaten (Ankhkheperure) (1341 - 1337) Dendrochronological dating of timbers from an Aegean shipwreck containing a gold scarab of Queen Nefertiti seem to show that she was queen by about 1316 BCE, or at least no later than a date between 1316 and the year the ship sank. This is based on the date when the most recently cut trees in the wreck were felled, ie 1316 BCE. This date is at least consistent with the reference chronology and doesn't allow much wiggle room to lower the date below about 1300 BCE. Smenkhkare Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure) (1337 - 1336) Tutankhamun   Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure) (1336 - 1327); Younger brother, probably, of Akhenaten. He dies without heir.    (Detail from the back rest of the throne of Tutankhamun) Ay Ay (Kheperkheperure) (1327 - 1323);        a former official. Haremheb Horemheb (Djeserkheperure) (1323 - 1295),        a former official.      c. 1531 BCE  Hittites sack Babylon. c. 1468 BCE  Battle of Megiddo. c. 1450 BCE  Sudden decline of the Minoan Empire on Crete.

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