Jonathan Singer
 March 23, and May 12, 1995
 Cultural Diversity
 Dr. Darlene Grant

Selected essays from the Cultural Diversity Mid-terms and Finals

We are surrounded by power. Kate Wambach's lecture defined power as "the process whereby people maintain or gain the capacity to impose their will on others" (1/27/94). Imposing one's will can sometimes be positive. When Mike Auberger brought a medical doctor and a lawyer to Denver's Heritage Rehabilitation Center, he was using professional power to get the release of one of the inmates. The center, against it's will, changed it's policies to make release possible (p. 103-05). Other times the process of imposing will can be negative. In the article on "Interdependence: the route to community," Al Condeluci relates the story of Joe-Joe, a man from his hometown who was retarded. The townspeople were always making Joe-Joe the object of ridicule. This power-play became fatal one day when Joe-Joe was told to drink a beer not knowing it was mixed with clorox. Joe-Joe did not want to die - that was a result of the wills of the men who played the "joke". The will of the people was also made clear when Condeluci notes that no one was held responsible for the death (p. 141).

Both situations highlight the mechanics of power. First, the process of power requires the participation of both groups. In Joe-Joe's case, the town took advantage of Joe-Joe's desire for acceptance. Second, power can be either overt or covert. The rehabilitation center was covertly exerting their will. They put up the facade that they were working to get him out, but in fact doing it in such a way that kept him there. Finally, the issue of punishment and rewards is implied. In both situations power was maintained by the threat of punishment. In Joe-Joe's case it could have been physical, or maybe worse - punishment by social ostracism. At the rehabilitation center punishment came in the form of blaming the mother for not being able to make the appointments. The underlying threat of course was that her child would die at the center and it would be her fault.

This idea of "blaming the victim" (Yamato, pg. 43). is important in understanding why some people assert that some people of color can be racist towards other people of color. This assertion is false and is a misunderstanding of racism. Yamato defines racism as "the systematic, institutionalized mistreatment of one group of people by another based on racial heritage" (p. 41). Since people of color do not control the institutions and resources, they cannot systematically mistreat other people of color (or whites). As the gangsta rapper/actor/social critic Ice-T says, a few African-Americans make lots of money as entertainers but who owns the teams, companies, and industries? Not African-Americans, and that's where the real power and money lies (The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder, 2/95). When whites call out reverse racism, they are blaming the victim (or maybe survivor would be a more appropriate term). It is possible that what they are seeing is individual instances of prejudice. People of color can be prejudice, but not racist.

Kate defined oppression as "the act of molding, immobilizing or reducing opportunities which thereby restrains, restricts or outright prevents the social, psychological, and/or economic movement of an individual or group" (1/27/95). Kate mentioned that there are phases in an oppressive relationship - it begins with force, moves to controlling resources, and ultimately ends up becoming invisible. Going back to the above examples of people with disabilities, we see different parts of the oppressive relationship. Joe-Joe was involved in a basic, forceful relationship. If he did not do as he was told, he would be beaten or killed. The rehabilitation clinic was invisible in it's oppression. It was preventing the movement of the client, but making it seem that it was the mother's fault.

As a social worker, there are many ways I can address the issues of power, racism and oppression. The first is by looking at myself and seeing what power I hold, and in what ways I am racist and oppressive. I like Yamoto's idea of working on racism for my sake not "their" sake (p. 44). Donna Langston urges us to take action. "Don't cross picket lines..., go join a picket line" (pg. 35). While working with a client, if I see that the client has issues with "isms," I can work with her or him to identify them. Instead of brushing the issue under the rug, Yamoto asks that we "[c]hallenge oppression. Take a stand against it" (p. 43). As social workers, we have the responsibility to do that at the local, state and federal levels. The first step is recognizing that power exists.

The problem with the statement "which of these groups has been more discriminated against and/or exploited than the others?" is that it is not possible to say that one type of discrimination is better or worse than another; there are no absolutes. This essay will look at examples of three different minority groups and argue that only within groups can distinctions of more and less discrimination/exploitation be valid.

During the Mexican-American panel (2/24/95), many of the older Mexican-American women mentioned that as children in school they were chastised and reprimanded for speaking Spanish. Surely the act of denying a person their own language must be one of the most horrible acts of discrimination.

The Native American panel (3/3/95) talked about how the government set up power plants on a reservation, used the reservation people for labor and now do not allow them to use the electricity that is being produced on their reservation. This is an example of blatant exploitation and discrimination against the Native Americans.

In his article on disabilities, Orelove talks about the discrimination experienced by Gail, who went to a school for children with disabilities. The school was run-down with inadequate facilities and teachers. In comparison, the school for able-bodied children was of the highest quality (p. 98). No one would argue that one of the most fundamental rights of children is quality education. How can we ignore the blatant discrimination in denying education simply because a child is disabled? It is not possible to say that being denied education is better or worse than being denied your own language.

At this point, the question of which group was more discriminated against is moot. All instances were horrible. Yet, there certainly are individuals within each group who have experienced less discrimination than individuals in other groups. All the panelists were successful and articulate. It is possible to make the argument that these individuals are able to avoid some types of discrimination and exploitation because of their education and economic status, that some one else without that would not be able to. For example, one could argue that within the whole population of Mexican-Americans, there are some who experience more exploitation than others. However as groups, it is not possible to say that one group is more discriminated against and/or exploited.

From an historical perspective, it is not possible to determine which group is more discriminated against and/or exploited. Bill Bolte writes a convincing article which suggests that people with disabilities "are the most oppressed group" (p. 116). On the following page, Marta Russell argues that the socio-economic and political history of persons with disabilities teaches that they are really "disvalued persons" (p. 117).

Stiffarm and Lane make a strong historical argument for Native Americans being the most oppressed group. They say that over a 400 year period between 95%-99% of all Native Americans have died or been killed. "Surely, there can be no more monumental example of sustained genocide... anywhere in the annals of human history" (p. 274).

Castex argues that the very fact that many different groups have been placed under the catchall name "hispanics" is evidence that a long history of oppression is nowhere near ending. "During the 19th century and early 20th century, Hispanics were legally discriminated against in the United States; they have always suffered from oppression, violence and disrespect" (Moore and Pachon, 1985 cited in Castex, p. 183).

In sum, history shows that each group has reason to believe they are the most discriminated against/exploited group. The only time when the issue of more or less discrimination becomes valid is when looking within a group. Then we can think about discrimination in terms of a continuum. The continuum would take into consideration all the factors (economic, physical, racial, social, geographic, linguistic, sexual, age etc.) that are involved in being discriminated against and/or exploited.

Even though I know nothing about Gary, Indiana, David Austin's lecture on Austin's cultural history provides a guide for understanding the cultural history of Gary. This information will be very important in determining how to set up a city-wide health program.

The population of Gary would be influenced by the different waves of immigration to the U.S.A. Prof. Austin noted that the first wave of immigrants to the United States were English. The second wave of immigrants were also European, but from a much broader base, including Ireland and Germany. During this time, the slave trade was active in a number of East Coast ports up (as well as Galveston). However, Indiana was a slave "free" state and would have most likely been influenced by the first two immigrant groups. According to Prof. Austin there was Asian immigration on the West Coast and Spanish descendants in the Southwest. It would not seem likely that either group would have much presence in Gary's ethnographic make-up.

Whatever Gary's ethnographic make-up, the immigrants would have moved from their coastal port of entry across states into Indiana. Unlike Austin, there is no port of entry near the land-locked state of Indiana (unless Lake Michigan is considered a port of entry). It could be assumed, then, that groups of people intentionally moved to Gary. Knowing which groups and why is important in figuring out how the city works, and how to best implement the health program.

In Gary, it would be important to look at where the first immigrants settled. The merchants would live in one area, the government officials in another, farmers would have lived in yet another part of town. There would have been a lower income area.

As the city grew, highways and train tracks would have provided geo-cultural demarcations. Prof. Austin noted that these physical markers were important in defining blurry boundaries between communities. This had the effect of isolating communities and resources. Prof. Austin mentioned that the Holly Street Power Plant, Tank Farms and Airport are all located in East Austin. In contrast, the college-prep high schools are in the West and have slowly moved North as the concentration of professionals moved North. Finding these boundaries in Gary would provide important information about where the centers of power and influence lie.

Geographic and historical boundaries would be important in implementing a city wide mammogram screening and breast cancer prevention program in Gary for many reasons. As noted earlier, there would be different resources in different parts of town. The more affluent areas would have more educational facilities, more hospitals, better roads and services. The lower-income areas would be more heavily industrialized with more land fills and trash dumps. Ironically this would make the area more at risk for health problems and more in need of the medical services found on the less polluted side of town. The planning would have to take into account the different needs of the different areas.

Gary would be divided economically. Theoretically, since the services would be funded by the city, all areas would have equal access to the programs. However, in order to carry out the task, locations would be needed for the screening and testing. Most of these would be in the more affluent parts of town. It would be important to account for that and locate accessible areas in the lower-income parts where clients can benefit. Administratively, it would be important to remember who is paying most of the taxes, and who will lobby the hardest for quality services in their areas. The geo-historical knowledge of the city will help identify traditional pockets of resistance to city intervention, areas of poverty, areas of affluence, and indicate how much fluidity there is in the make up of the cities population.

In sum, examining the geo-historical boundaries of Gary would inform how I would go about implementing a city wide mammogram screening and breast cancer prevention program. The boundaries would provide clues as to the social and economic division of the city, which in turn helps identify the city's resources.

McIntosh defines white privilege as "being put in a position of privilege/advantage because of color" (p. 45). White privilege falls into the same category as male privilege. Being white, or being male are not choices (except through surgery). They are both ascribed characteristics, which in the United States carry advantages. McIntosh refers to these as "unearned advantages" (p. 47). She points out that some of the advantages, such as being able to trust that the judicial system will not discriminate against you because of your skin color, should be universal rights. Since only certain groups benefit from them, they are advantages.

McIntosh gives a number of examples of white privilege (p. 46). One is that bandages are "flesh" (pink) colored. Another is that a white person can take a job with an affirmative action employer without their co-workers suspecting that they got the job because of race.

As a young able-bodied middle-class white male I have been privileged to experience a number of unearned privileges. One of the most obvious for me is in my language. English is the closest to a universal language. When I am in Europe, Latin America or Asia I can be confident that periodicals, movies, music, and all official business can be found in English. I am always more proficient in English than the people with whom I am talking. I can be fairly certain that there are no expectations that I speak the language of the country I am visiting. Had I grown up in any other non-English-speaking country I would have spoken at least two languages, probably more.

A second privilege is that I grew up in a white middle-class educated household. Academic debate comes to me naturally. While I have worked at it, there has always been a model set by my parents which I can follow. This has made academic success relatively easy.

A third privilege based on being a white male is that if I ever need money, I will have few problems obtaining loans from banks. If the banks will not lend me money, at least I will know it is not because of my race. Furthermore, I can always rely on my family to support me.

It is important to reduce/eliminate "unearned advantage" at all levels. Reducing unearned advantage at the personal (micro) level starts with becoming aware. Among other things, encouraging my friends to read the McIntosh article is one way of spreading awareness. Now that I am aware of white privilege I need to recognize when I am using white privilege to the detriment of others.

The mezzo level would include schools, churches, neighborhood organizations. In Austin, it would be important to encourage the use of Spanish in information and communication. In order to equalize the relationship more I would need to speak with monolingual Spanish speakers in Spanish and not expect them to struggle through English.

Macro level intervention would look at laws and policy, at the local, state and national level. One law we can pass would make the insurance and banking practice of redlining illegal. An unearned privilege is the ability to live anywhere because of skin color. Redlining discriminates mostly against communities of color.

As a social worker, I have a role in all three levels. On the micro-level with my clients and co-workers I need to be aware of my unearned privileges so as to minimize differences that would preclude true communication. I would work to promote self-determination on the mezzo level with the communities. Each community holds different values. In supporting community development I would be fostering a situation wherein people could benefit from different unearned privileges (such as language, or skin color or family connection.) On the macro-level I would be lobbying for the laws and educating the policy makers. The laws reflect unearned advantages and perpetuate them. Donning my problem-solving hat, I would work to eliminate that at the macro level.

The following four essays are from the Cultural Diversity take-home final exam. I was unable to locate the original questions.

When looking at current social, economic, and policy issues in African-American families, it is important to look at the historical developments of the last 30 years. This essay will look at how the development of the single-parent family, the stagflation of the 70's, and policy of redlining, has made an impact on the African-American family.

In the last 30 years, single parent-families have slowly become the "predominant family type among black families with children" (Nichols-Casbolt, 1988, p. 477). McRoy gives us the biggest reason for single parent families. "Teen parenthood is another major issue in the black community today and a cause of single parent families" (1990, p. 457). The majority of single family households are headed by women, a phenomenon which has its roots in slavery. Since the 1960's however, the incidence of out-of-wedlock births has increased over 100%. McRoy (1990) reminds us that single-parent families are not inherently bad. To point the finger at African-Americans or women would be to miss the point. In fact, there is a strong systemic bias towards the nuclear family, and many social policies are designed around helping two-parent families. The "deterrence" attitude of pro-nuclear family policies has made it very difficult for single teenage mothers to continue their education and/or get jobs which pay enough to support themselves. Although some find support on federal programs like AFDC (which is designed to perpetuate the single-parent family), the majority connect with the extended family for financial, emotional and child-support.

The phenomena of single-parent families owes much to recent economic developments. Hill (1990) notes that "the economic gains achieved by black families during the sixties were severely eroded during the seventies and eighties" (p. 495). As social workers, it is important to think beyond the "blame the victim" mentality of the Moynihan report and understand the external factors involved (p. 496). Hill goes on to mention how the Nixon administration dismantled the "War on Poverty" programs, and started a trend that continued through Reagan of shifting the tax burden to middle- and lower-income families (p. 499). Economic racism, such as job discrimination, raising the age for full Social Security entitlement, and not adjusting welfare for inflation has been identified as being a major factor (Hill p. 500). Finally, the net effects of institutionalize racism, whether overt or covert have all played a role in the current economic situation of African-American families (Granger, 1991, p. 526).

The last issue is redlining. Hill (1990) notes that institutions have been intentionally discriminating against African-American families by "redlining" neighborhoods (p. 497). Briefly, redlining is the practice of banks and insurance companies to refusal to provide services for people living in certain areas. These areas are rationalized as being "high-risk" and are demarcated by red lines on a map. The net effect is that for years, African-American families have been denied access to business loans, insurance, real estate etc. because of where they live (which is also determined in part by their race.) Recent activity by grassroots social justice groups like ACORN has brought lawsuits against insurance companies for discrimination, but still the small strides are far from being a solution. Similarly, Granger (1991) notes a pattern of societal backlash against socioeconomic, political or other gains made by African-Americans (p. 528).

One of the strengths of the United States is that there are people from all different cultures living here. With each culture comes different ways of life, languages, beliefs etc. As members of these various cultural groups become immersed in the dominant culture (over generations) they are going through the process known as acculturation (Locke 1992, p. 10). This essay will look at the social worker's role in helping a Chinese woman understand issues of acculturation.

The first issue to remember is that a family that adheres to Confucianistic traditions will place more emphasis on the family than the individual. There is also an extensive hierarchy of rules and behaviors which guide family interactions (Shon and Ja 1982, p. 611). This contrasts greatly to the individualistic, non-rule oriented dominant culture of the United States. The client's confusion needs to be addressed within the context of her expectations vs. her daughter's U.S. socialization.

The second issue is the roles the daughter and mother are playing. In traditional families, the mother is expected to be the caretaker and not assume the male role of provider (True, 1990, p. 636). The client is experiencing a dissonance between her socialized role and the necessity of two incomes in the United States. She sees her daughter as dishonoring the family by not fulfilling the daughter role of staying in the home. Instead, the daughter wants more freedom and less family commitment. This is in direct opposition to the "greatest obligation of East Asians" which is to serve parents (Shon and Ja 1982, p. 614).

The third issue is the role of the father. As provider, the father is obliged to support his family and continue the family line (Shon and Ja 1982, p. 612). This father is most likely feeling like a failure. His wife is working outside of the home and his daughter is breaking away from the family. Shon and Ja suggest that fathers might feel ashamed and defeated. It is important to work within the traditional family structures, in this case deferring to the father for things to get worked out. This will increase his sense of importance and reveal the therapists respect for his position in the family (Shon and Ja, p. 614). There is mention in the literature that both cognitive-behavioral approaches and psychodynamic approaches are effective in working with Chinese-American families (Shon and Ja 1982, p. 614; True, 1990, p. 637). Reframing can be a very effective tool for increasing communication between traditional parents and transitional children. Helping each party see what is actually being said by the other will help the acculturation process remain positive. Psychodynamic theory works well with the issues of connection felt in the family, especially between mother and child. These bonds can be explored in therapy. On the panel, Amy noted that the concept of compartmentalizing the families problems in an hour session is contrary to traditional Asian family socialization (4/14/95). A truly systemic view needs to be taken into consideration when working with Asian families.

The mother will need to find a place where she can feel successful in her traditional roles and her new American roles. This will be worked out only within the context of the family. Her depression can be addressed through a combination treatment of drugs and talk-therapy mentioned above. The therapist can work to help her integrate the more egalitarian ideas of her co-workers and her own traditional views. Finally, the therapist must take issues of language and race into consideration when working with an Asian family. Like all groups studied in this class, being aware of the issues is the first step to being truly helpful in working with them.

Traditionally, all non-heterosexuals have been labeled (mostly by heterosexuals) as the "Gay Community". Identifying a single community placates a homophobic society by putting all of the differences found in gay, lesbian and bisexuals into a convenient little box. This little box is generally regarded by homophobes to consist mainly of "deviant sexual activity"(ie non-hetero sex) (Pharr 1992, p. 659). There are numerous problems with this schema. As Bernard (1992) points out "The term Homosexual with emphasis on same sex genital contact is inadequate and reductionist as a means of encompassing and understanding the variety of same sex relationships" (p. 652). One of the variety of same sex relationships discussed in the panel was one where one partner was "out" (ie openly gay to himself and others) and the other one was not (Oscar, Panel 4/28/95). While the issue of "coming out" is common to both gay men and lesbian women, we need to understand that there are many different gay and lesbian communities which often regarded issues differently. This essay will briefly look at what the literature and panel discussions consider pros and cons of coming out and how coming out might be different for gay men and lesbian women. Thoughts on the role of social workers in supporting "coming out" or "staying in the closet" will be considered at the end.

For both gay men and lesbian women, coming out is a continual process. As Steve said, in some ways it would be nice to notify Time magazine and have the whole thing be done with (Panel 4/28/95). For both gay men and lesbian women, coming out helps in the process of integrating ones personality. Like all development, coming out presents a person with challenges and crises that need to be faced. Oscar said the process of coming out is both a burden and a relief (Panel 4/28/95). The first step is coming out to oneself. On the panel, Kate said she was afraid to come out to herself. She was "a raving heterosexual" until she met a positive out lesbian role mode. At that point she saw the advantages of coming out as outweighing the disadvantages.

There are a number of pros and cons gay men must consider when thinking about coming out. Bernard (1992) alludes to one societal advantage, pointing out the heterosexual taboos on man-to-man intimate relationships. There is relative social acceptance of intimate relationships between women (hetero or homo) (p. 653). Gay men, for the most part, find intimacy only with other gay men and that requires being out. One of the disadvantages of coming out for a gay man is the constant threat of physical violence. One reason for this is that gay men are considered a threat to the patriarchy (Bernard, p. 652). Oscar noted another unique disadvantage of coming out. His family role was as the oldest son, with the expectations to carry on the family name and traditions. When he came out, he was removing himself from the most respected child role (Panel 4/28/95).

For lesbian women, coming out has its own pros and cons. In a wonderful article, Murphy (1993) argues that it is important to be out to families before death. Being out has the advantage of making it clear that life-partners or gay or lesbian communities and institutions might be the inheritors - not the biological family (pp. 671-673). This keeps gay and lesbian money away from homophobic institutions and builds stronger communities. In the panel, Kate said that she has never been fired from a job for being a lesbian because all of her employers knew when they hired her. Pharr (1988) reminds us that coming out is not all wine and roses. For lesbians, coming out can mean losing important emotional ties (family, children). Spiritual connections, such as church, and financial considerations, like job security are also placed in precarious positions when out (p. 657).

Social workers can play a very important role, both in supporting a clients choice to come out or stay in the closet. For both choices, it is important to remember to individualize each client. Bernard reminds us that "[h]omosexuals are a mixed group not bound by the same minority group loyalty as blacks, Jews and other oppressed ethnic groups..." (p. 655). Not all clients will chose to be out for the same reasons, nor will they define it the same way. Loiacano (1989) notes that issues of coming out might have differences in the white and black communities. "Overall, being out in a predominantly White gay and lesbian community may not have the same day-to-day payoffs for Black-Americans that it does for White Americans" (684).

Pharr (1988) believes that it is important for lesbians (and presumably gay men) to think of themselves as "worthy of the rights and freedoms accorded those who are heterosexually identified". For social workers this would fall under the rubric of promoting self-determination of the client and ensuring that the client is aware of all the rights and prerogatives accorded to her/ him.

Finally, staying in the closet would require the same considerations and support as for coming out. The panel (4/28/95) discussed being supportive without "outing" the client by demonstrating a homosexual positive attitude. These issues all point to the breadth of strengths and concerns found in working with gays and lesbians.

Adolescence has long been considered the most trying time in a persons life. Freud was the first theorist to deal with the issues of developing from a sexless child to a sexual adult. One of his beliefs was that homosexuality was unsuccessful resolution of the Oedipal/Elektra complex. Positing homosexuality in the light of a deficit has contributed to the development of a homophobic society. As social workers, it is important to recognize the developmental issues that accompany growing up gay, lesbian, or bi-sexual in a society that provides few support systems for the challenges with which adolescents are faced.

Morrow (1993) looks at how growing up lesbian or gay affects developmental issues in adolescents. He points out that adolescents is a time for discovering self-identity. In heterosexual adolescents, the family and much of society models appropriate behavior. Gay and lesbian adolescents do not receive such support, nor useful modeling on how to be a member of a gay or lesbian community. Furthermore, the family is usually a source of financial and emotional support. Maslow talks about food and shelter as basic needs on top of which all other growth can take place. If an adolescent is cut off from those basic needs, they will develop along the lines of survival, not growth. Even if adolescents are financially supported, withdrawal of emotional support can be equally devastating. Both of these contribute to the growing problems of gay and lesbian adolescent homelessness, suicide and substance abuse.

Identity formation and peer support are both important developmental milestones for adolescents. Typical development includes peer communication and discussion about relationships, emotions, and behavior. The goal of much of this discourse is assurance that the adolescent is normal. For gay and lesbian adolescents differences can be stressful. In the panel (4/28/95), we heard that Kate's response to "being different" was to conform to the extreme and become a "raving heterosexual" who dated all of the most popular boys in school. Oscar commented that he has seen gay men in their 20's and 30's acting like teenagers. The implication is that if issues and experiences do not happen in adolescence (because of societal oppression and homophobia), then they are likely to happen later in life. By the same token, if older gay men are acting like teenagers, then mature, positive developmental role models for gay adolescents is limited. In the panel, both Kate and Trish said they decided to come out when presented with positive lesbian role models.

The positive side of growing up lesbian or gay is that successful resolution of the particular challenges can lead to a very strong and powerful adult. Pharr (1988) suggests that all lesbian adults are survivors and have developed strong individual identities that are interconnected with the lesbian community. While this is a generalization it speaks to the fact that the very challenges that can make growing up gay and lesbian miserable can also be rewarding in adulthood.

Social workers play an important role in working with gay and lesbian adolescents. Most people see social workers when they are having problems coping with life. By the same logic, gay and lesbian adolescents will probably be dealing with a number of developmental issues. The first charge of a social worker is to be aware of the "typical" developmental issues and then individualize for the client, keeping in mind unique strengths and challenges that are presented growing up gay and lesbian. Second, social workers can provide positive socialization opportunities for gay and lesbian adolescents. For example, Oscar (Panel 4/28/95) discussed his Project Phase where he works with homeless gay and lesbian adolescents to provide them with support they were not getting at home. Reducing the amount of heterosexist bias in language and assumptions will help create a supportive environment. For example, instead of talking about "marriage" as a goal, discuss life-long partners and the love and trust needed to have a relationship like that. Third, social workers can provide accurate information about gay and lesbian lifestyles, frequency of substance abuse, homelessness and suicide in those communities and about supportive organizations. When working with the families, social workers can also be supportive and help them understand their issues. Groups like P-FLAG can be very useful in keeping a family together. Finally, social workers need to recognize that not all gay and lesbian adolescent issues will be the same. Automatically referring someone to Out Youth is as unprofessional as not considering that as an option.